Debates on development and sustainability: diverse perspectives practice questions.

Modernisation theory broadly argues that development occurs when countries

• remain economically dependent on their former colonial powers
• follow stages of growth like already-industrialised states
• reject all international trade
• prioritise military spending over industry

Answer: follow stages of growth like already-industrialised states

Modernisation theory (e.g. Rostow's stages) sees development as a linear path resembling that of industrialised economies; dependency theory contests this.

According to Amartya Sen's capability approach, development is best understood as

• sustained growth in a country's GDP per capita
• movement through a series of fixed historical stages toward an industrial society
• expanding people's real freedoms and capabilities to live lives they value
• a rising share of manufacturing in national output

Answer: expanding people's real freedoms and capabilities to live lives they value

Sen defines development as freedom: expanding what people are actually able to be and do (capabilities), rather than income growth alone, which inspired the Human Development Index.

Which indicator combines life expectancy, years of schooling and income per capita into a single score for each country?

• The Human Development Index
• The Gini coefficient
• The Gross National Happiness index
• The Multidimensional Poverty Index

Answer: The Human Development Index

The HDI aggregates health, education and income dimensions; the Gini coefficient measures inequality, and the MPI measures overlapping deprivations among the poor.

Advocates of degrowth argue that

• economic growth can be fully decoupled from resource use through technological innovation alone
• developing countries should abandon poverty-reduction targets
• environmental protection should be left entirely to market prices
• rich economies should deliberately reduce material and energy use to respect ecological limits

Answer: rich economies should deliberately reduce material and energy use to respect ecological limits

Degrowth holds that endless growth is ecologically impossible in rich economies and calls for planned reduction of throughput while improving well-being; belief in full decoupling is the rival green-growth position.

According to the 1987 Brundtland Report, sustainable development is development that

• maximises economic growth while postponing environmental regulation
• prioritises the needs of future generations over those of people alive today
• keeps global GDP growth below 2% per year
• meets present needs without compromising future generations' needs

Answer: meets present needs without compromising future generations' needs

The Brundtland definition balances intragenerational needs (especially of the world's poor) with intergenerational equity; it does not subordinate the present to the future or set a growth cap.

Supporters of 'green growth' argue that

• growth and environmental protection can be reconciled through innovation and decoupling
• all economic growth must stop immediately to protect ecosystems
• environmental damage is an acceptable and necessary price to pay for rapid industrialisation
• only state-owned industries can operate sustainably

Answer: growth and environmental protection can be reconciled through innovation and decoupling

Green growth (ecological modernisation) claims technology, renewable energy and efficiency can decouple growth from environmental harm; degrowth critics doubt sufficient decoupling is possible.